<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?><oembed><version>1.0</version><provider_name>EU-Logos</provider_name><provider_url>https://eulogos.blogactiv.eu</provider_url><author_name>EU Logos</author_name><author_url>https://eulogos.blogactiv.eu/author/communicationeulogos/</author_url><title>Migration drivers: Why do people migrate?</title><html>
&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;The Migration crisis  has been an issue as well as an upheaval for European societies. While several  measures have been undertaken to provide an appropriate solution, EU’s  engagement to deal  with it was not  enough to prevent the burst of fear and repulsion throughout Europe. Besides,  the lack of information deepened the pre-existing misperceptions and enhanced  the distorted understanding of migration processes. In an attempt to offset  this trend, we aim to bring clarity to the subject by providing objective facts, evidences and information, so that opinions can be built on more  reliable grounds. To do so, the first step is to acknowledge migration as a  deeply complex phenomenon, on which no simplistic statement shall be too  quickly established. In our article, we first reveal the complexity to  distinguish between forced and voluntary migration. Secondly, we investigate  different ways to analyse the drivers of migration. In another step, we focus  on the factors which entail direct effects on migration decision. Furthermore,  there is a range of several factors that shape migration through complex ties  and causality. &lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Since
 2015, Europe&rsquo;s Great Migration Crisis&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn1&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 sparked the light on the burning issue of (im)migration. The crisis reached
 its peak in 2015 and 2016, when 2.5 million people demanded asylum in the
 European Union (EU)&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn2&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
 while 2.5 million people were found to be illegally present in the EU &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn3&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;The
 burst of mass immigration within the last years provoked intense debates on
 the topic and its consequences, being one of the most important issues
 worldwide. For instance, the EU implemented a European Migration Agenda in
 2015&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn4&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 in order to address the rising issues which aimed at preventing irregular
 migration; saving lives by securing the immigration process; and providing a
 coherent framework to ensure a clear management of asylum seekers’
 applications&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn5&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Global actions have been undertaken as well, especially with the New York
 Declaration for Refugees and Migrants aiming to acknowledge the States&rsquo;
 responsibility regarding the migration phenomenon&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn6&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[6]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 This ended up with the intergovernmental conference on international migration
 held in Morocco in December 2018. It led to the Global Compact for Migration,
 which was adopted later in December&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn7&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[7]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Even
 though the agreement is not legally binding, it has been widely disputed and
 criticized, partially under false statements&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn8&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[8]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 It has symbolized what the drivers of migration debates have been about :
 misperceptions, fears and fake news. In Europe, fear has been stirred through
 misleading statements&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn9&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[9]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
 even though some media outlets and academics keep trying to prevent news based
 on fake information to spread&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn10&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[10]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Information is intensively disputed and is likely to represent a fundamental
 issue to be handled in today’s society. Furthermore, an aversion to the
 information intermediation has been disqualifying the so-called &lsquo;experts&rsquo; point
 of view&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn11&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[11]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,
 reducing the ability to confront statements with facts and to go over
 misleading intuitive understandings.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Among
 the several consequences that migration is supposedly inflicting to the host
 countries is the cost it entails. The complexity regarding its comprehension
 can be leading to (unintentional as well as intentional) wrong statements,
 demonstrating what would represent a state&rsquo;s burden&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn12&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[12]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 For instance, illegitimate behaviors are pointed out through aids abuses, even
 though main assumptions are debunked&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn13&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[13]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn14&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[14]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Migration’s impact on unemployment is also a burning issue on which political
 stances diverge essentially&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn15&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[15]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Overall, the economic impact of migration remains blurred. Nevertheless, it is
 neither the only nor the main aspect of the immigration issue and its
 perception&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn16&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[16]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 We have to keep in mind that a costs-benefits analysis may not be the unique
 relevant lens through which the legitimacy of migration policies should be
 established&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn17&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[17]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Soothing
 public fear on immigration comes with acknowledging that migration is a fact
 and understanding it in order to lift misperceptions and hearsays surrounding
 the issue. In order to do so, in
 our article, we will deal with its determinants,
 i.e. the factors that motivate an individual or a group of people to move from
 their home and to settle down elsewhere.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;h3&gt;1.Considering migration: identifying  migrants, analyse and limits&lt;/h3&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;1.1. The problem of migrants’ identification&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Analysing
 the asylum-seekers spike of 2015-2016 leads to a first and substantial issue,
 as distinguishing migrants (between those forced to migration and those who
 voluntarily did) appears to be a challenge that is hard to tackle.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Asylum-related
 migration deals with individuals applying for asylum, as defined in Art. 2(h)
 of the EU&rsquo;s Directive 2011/95/EU&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn18&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[18]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 This definition includes those who request a refugee status or a subsidiary
 protection status, regardless of whether the application was formulated on their
 arrival at the border, or from inside the country, and irrespectively of
 whether the person entered the territory legally (e.g. as a tourist) or
 illegally. Therefore, it also includes people for whom the intention to apply
 for international protection emerges “en route”, in transit countries, due to
 emerging circumstances (e.g. political or economic insecurity, access to
 information via networks).&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Therefore,
 strictly analyzing asylum-related migration appears to be quite complicated,
 as requesting a refugee status might happen on the migration route. Even if a
 refugee status applies to an individual who has a “well-founded fear of being
 persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or
 membership of a particular social group” ( Art. 2(d) of the EU&rsquo;s Directive
 2011/95/EU ), establishing who&rsquo;s substantially forced to migrate and who is
 not does not lay on clear evidence. In a recent paper, analysts examined
 voluntariness in migration decisions and suggested that forced and voluntary
 migration are understood better as points on a spectrum than as a dichotomy&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn19&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[19]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.Such blurred lines are particularly
 evident in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, where a study stated that
 “there is often a complex and overlapping relationship between ‘forced’ and
 ‘economic’ drivers of migration to Europe. Many of those who left their home
 countries primarily due to economic reasons effectively became refugees and
 were forced to move due to the situation in Libya and elsewhere”&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn20&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[20]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Nevertheless, it is necessary to move beyond the legal definition to assess
 the European Migration crisis, due to the nature of asylum migration flows to
 Europe. With the consideration of the different source and nature of migrants,
 the phenomenon can be referred to as “mixed migration”, meaning “complex
 population movements including refugees, asylum-seekers, economic migrants and
 other migrants” who often move
 irregularly, i.e. without the requisite documentation&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn21&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[21]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Furthermore,
 migration does not necessarily obey to the willingness to migrate. According
 to a survey conducted by Gallup World Poll, at a global level, 21.4% of the
 surveyed population expresses willingness to migrate, but only 1.1% actually
 prepares to do so.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn22&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[22]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25331&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/1-5/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?fit=1082%2C578&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;1082,578&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;1&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?fit=300%2C160&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?fit=1024%2C547&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?fit=1024%2C547&amp;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25331&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?w=1082&amp;ssl=1 1082w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?resize=300%2C160&amp;ssl=1 300w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?resize=768%2C410&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/1-1.png?resize=1024%2C547&amp;ssl=1 1024w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 1082px) 100vw, 1082px&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Figure 1 : Intentions  to migrate by large geographic areas and income groups. Average for 2010-2015.  Retrieved from ‘Grubanov-Boskovic, S. and Kalantaryan, S. (2018). ‘Trends and  patterns of international migration and intentions to migrate’. JRC Science  for policy report ‘international migration drivers’. Data source: authors’  elaboration based on Gallup World Poll &lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;1.2.
 Determinants of migration&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;The
 push-pull framework developed by Lee&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn23&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[23]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 has been deeply influent in analysing migration movements. Lee’s theory of
 migration suggested that in both areas of origin and destination, there may be
 factors that act to hold, retain, or attract people (pull factors) or those
 that repel people (push factors).&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Push factors can  include armed conflicts, natural disasters, the lack of job opportunities, the  possession of economic and cultural capital, a family break up or  dissatisfaction with one’s own life and surroundings. Pull factors can often  be the polar opposites of the push factors, i.e. greater security, better job  opportunities or the prospect of a better life overall&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn24&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[24]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Even  though literature is abundant on migration analysis, it is rarely possible to  single out a separate effect or cause to migration. Nevertheless, a relative  agreement on the socio-economic dimension and the political one underlines  their direct effect on migration. Besides, factors facing a relative  divergence should ultimately be seen as factors whose relevance appears to be  deeply interlinked with other variables at play, and whose significant impact  may therefore be harder to isolate, therefore implying a more indirect impact  on migration.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn25&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[25]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;However, push-pull factors  undermine the individual motivations, assuming automated responses or passive  reactions to the factors&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn26&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[26]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, and might set structural  arguments unrelated to the complexity of human mobility. Even  though such a framework can be useful to categorise the reasons that may  prompt movement, it makes strong assumptions about the way individuals respond  to stimuli. It presumes that individuals are rational, have access to full  information, that markets tend to a general equilibrium, which is far from the  reality of migration. As such, the model fails to explain why, for instance,  people respond differently to the same “push” and “pull” forces, and why  emigration and immigration occur simultaneously in the same areas, or why the  vast majority of the world’s population does not migrate.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn27&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[27]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;In an attempt to bridge the gap between theory and reality, a closer attention  is carried on individuals’ desires and aspirations. Aspiration and desire  relate to individual cognition and emotion. It means that even economic  narratives of movement are socially constructed and must be read with a close  attention to the subjectivities of migrants, their states of feeling and the  circulation of affect within and across borders.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn28&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[28]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  Acknowledging aspiration and desire effects leads to reconsider “drivers“ as  no longer a solely sufficient element to explain ; rather, they facilitate or  constrain individual agency&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn29&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[29]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Bakewell once argued that  “people do not aspire to migrate; they aspire  to something which migration might help them achieve”&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn30&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[30]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;h3&gt;2. Direct effect factors on migration decision &lt;/h3&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;2.1. Socio-economic factors&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Seeking
 economic opportunities can be understood as a strategy of income maximization.
 Actual and expected wage differentials and differences in standards of living
 between communities of origin and destination are consistently considered as
 significant factors in shaping both internal and international human mobility.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn31&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[31]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn32&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[32]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 Studying the explanation of migration flows to Europe, from large sets of
 countries, de Haas (2011) provides some empirical evidence on the income
 differentials relevance&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn33&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[33]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Economic opportunities significance concerning migration is also highlighted
 with the availability of employment opportunities in destination countries,
 usually analyzed throughemployment
 rates or economic growth, or the perceived difference in job opportunities
 between origin and destination.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn34&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[34]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 The development level of the receiving country stems a direct relationship
 regarding immigrants attraction, confirming the idea that wealthy
 industrialized societies would be more attractive.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn35&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[35]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 At a macro-level, human mobility is shaped by the inherent characteristics of
 global capitalist expansion, such as the structural demand for cheap and
 exploitable labour in industrialised countries, coupled with social dynamics
 (limited native labour supply or unwillingness of native workers to take on
 low-paid, unstable jobs)&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn36&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[36]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Nevertheless, factors such as individual poverty constraints and economic
 hardship may limit people’s ability to migrate even in the presence of a
 desire to migrate, linked to expected higher earnings in the destination
 country&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn37&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[37]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Another  theory developed by Borjas (1989), among others, relies on human capital which  is the stock of skills that an individual or labour force possesses&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn38&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[38]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Therefore, this theory states that the migration decisions are shaped  according to the expected lifetime return on the migration investment&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn39&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[39]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  In this way, migration can be considered as a form of human capital investment  where returns largely depend on a person’s location, as this will affect the  ability of an individual to use his or her skills&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn40&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[40]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Family risk diversification and the possibility to obtain access to credit  through incomes transferred by a migrant household member explain migration as  well. Migration can therefore be explained as an investment strategy not only  for an individual but for an entire household.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn41&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[41]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  In a study concerning Afghan unaccompanied asylum seekers in the UK, for  instance, Vervliet et al. (2014) found that the decision to migrate is  often made with another family member.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn42&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[42]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25333&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/2-4/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?fit=1191%2C429&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;1191,429&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;2&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?fit=300%2C108&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?fit=1024%2C369&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?fit=1024%2C369&amp;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25333&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?w=1191&amp;ssl=1 1191w, https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?resize=300%2C108&amp;ssl=1 300w, https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?resize=768%2C277&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/2-1.png?resize=1024%2C369&amp;ssl=1 1024w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 1191px) 100vw, 1191px&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Figure 2 : Migrants interviews  along different routes, asked “Did anyone encourage you to migrate?”, data  collected by 4Mi, retrieved from Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018).  “Mixed Migration Review 2018. Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Drivers  revisited &#8211; Why do people migrate, pp. 78-83 &lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Including
 aspirations, network and transition theories to the analysis provides further
 keys for migration comprehension. Access to information about the standards of
 living in the destination country, via formal and informal networks, eased by
 the communication possibilities brought by technological developments, is an
 instrument to shape individual aspirations&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn43&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[43]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 The presence of various types of networks, potential as actual, migrants can
 rely on as a source of information (at every stage of the journey), is as well
 an important factor to shape migration intentions or facilitate and perpetuate
 migratory movements&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn44&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[44]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Moreover, the size of previous networks along with the average income in the
 receiving country is significantly relevant in predicting migration propensity&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn45&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[45]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Besides, as highlighted by the Overseas Development Institute assessment of
 drivers of asylum-related migration to Europe (2015), irregular migration
 might emerge as the result of a collective effort made by networks in which
 the family and&nbsp; social and religious
 groups, helped by the use of social media, play an important role in shaping
 the timing and circumstances of individual movement&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn46&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[46]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25334&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/3-3/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?fit=1191%2C1119&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;1191,1119&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;3&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?fit=300%2C282&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?fit=1024%2C962&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?fit=1024%2C962&amp;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25334&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?w=1191&amp;ssl=1 1191w, https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?resize=300%2C282&amp;ssl=1 300w, https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?resize=768%2C722&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.png?resize=1024%2C962&amp;ssl=1 1024w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 1191px) 100vw, 1191px&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt; &lt;br /&gt;Figure 3 : Migrants interviews along different  routes, asked about their destination choice, data collected by 4Mi, retrieved  from Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed Migration Review  2018. Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Drivers revisited &#8211; Why do people  migrate, pp. 78-83 &lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Finally,
 consecutive to migration transition theories, economic and technological
 development may describe accurately the increasing outward international
 mobility, as we consider the transition from rural and agrarian societies
 towards urban and industrial ones. The theory and its evidences state that
 higher economic and human capital development are initially associated to
 higher levels of emigration, as capital accumulation and modernisation
 increases people financial resources and aspirations to emigrate&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn47&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[47]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Nevertheless, the theory also argues that emigration decreases with the growth
 in prosperity and development&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn48&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[48]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25336&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/4-3/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?fit=562%2C344&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;562,344&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;4&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?fit=300%2C184&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?fit=562%2C344&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?w=1200&#038;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25336&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?w=562&amp;ssl=1 562w, https://i0.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/4.png?resize=300%2C184&amp;ssl=1 300w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 562px) 100vw, 562px&quot; data-recalc-dims=&quot;1&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 4: Association between levels of development and migration patterns, de Haas 2010&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;2.2.Political factors&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Understanding
 migration goes along with acknowledging the relevance of political factors&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn49&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[49]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 At the end of 2016, there were a total of 22.5 million refugees, the highest
 on record&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn50&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[50]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Nonetheless, the socio-economic dimension appears as a catalyst for asylum-seeking
 migration rather than its main driver. Conclusions over political factors
 analysis generally converge to the importance of conflict, violence, (real or
 perceived) threats to personal security, political instability, and human
 rights abuses as determinant of migratory movements&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn51&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[51]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 However, and it rather be kept in mind, asylum-seeking specific analysis
 contains several restrictions which harden the distinction with economic
 migrations&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn52&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[52]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;A
 variety of categorisations for violence in different contexts can be used to
 conduct analysis, ranging from dissident violence versus state-sponsored
 violence, actual violent events, ethnic rebellion, and generalised violence.
 The geographical scope and intensity of the conflict in the same context of
 generalised violence shape asylum applications drivers, as shown by Migali
 (2018)&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn53&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[53]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Furthermore, the experience of continued violence in Syria increases the
 probability that a refugee would aspire to permanently settle in another
 country&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn54&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[54]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Nevertheless, it is quite difficult to single out one specific factor as
 phenomenons are complex and factors are intertwined. &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Clearly
 separating the political from the economic dimension in analysis of forced and
 irregular migration processes appears to be rather difficult : a conflict may
 be a far more relevant determinant of irregular migration than economic
 hardship when the two are analysed in conjunction&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn55&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[55]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Correlations between various factors acting in countries of origin, transit,
 and destination make it difficult to isolate the role of independent drivers.
 Indeed, conflict, generalised violence and political instability impact
 people’s economic security while underdevelopment may be a crucial factor in
 the increased likelihood of conflict&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn56&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[56]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Both socio-economic and political factors happen to be deeply intertwined in
 certain situations, thereby demonstrating how migration results more from a
 combination of the two factors rather than just one. Therefore, it is
 meaningless to set a clear line between forced and economic migrants as argued
 in the Overseas Development Institute 2015 report, focusing on the case of the
 recent increase in irregular migration flows to Europe&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn57&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[57]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 In this situation, migrants seem to be driven by a combination of conflicts,
 political instability, and economic insecurity. Besides, as routes vary
 between individuals, motivations can change during the often long and
 convoluted journey to Europe, depending on the conditions encountered in
 transit countries as well as the migration policies in place in transit and destination
 countries. For instance, individuals on the route from the Horn of Africa
 towards Yemen and Saudi Arabia are primarily moving for economic reasons (90.4
 per cent), while those moving from the Horn towards North Africa and Europe
 are also moving because of a lack of rights (See Figure 5). &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25337&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/5-3/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?fit=1191%2C1684&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;1191,1684&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;5&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?fit=212%2C300&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?fit=724%2C1024&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?fit=724%2C1024&amp;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25337&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?w=1191&amp;ssl=1 1191w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?resize=212%2C300&amp;ssl=1 212w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?resize=768%2C1086&amp;ssl=1 768w, https://i2.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/5.png?resize=724%2C1024&amp;ssl=1 724w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 1191px) 100vw, 1191px&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 5: Migrants  interviews along different routes, data collected by 4Mi, retrieved from  Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed Migration Review 2018.  Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Drivers revisited &#8211; Why do people  migrate, pp. 78-83&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;h3&gt;3. Disputed  causality between factors and migration &lt;/h3&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;3.1 Demographic factors&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Even
 though demographic changes happen to be identified as a major structural
 determinant of human mobility, its influence might impact migration throughout
 the pressure it put on other factors, such as economic growth and availability
 of employment opportunities in origin countries or migration policies in
 destination countries. As population variables both affect and are affected by
 migration patterns, quantifying the impact of demographic factors on migration
 might be challenging.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Population  growth, total fertility rates, and population density or size are indicators  that might translate the demographic pressure on human mobility. Even though  these points are proven in his analysis on immigration population in the  United States (US), Kritz (2001) does not find a linear relationship between  migration and population growth, as migrants in the US are more likely to  originate in countries with moderate population growth rates&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn58&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[58]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Furthermore, the effect of demographic pressure is largely influenced by  economic prospects (employment opportunities) in origin countries rather than  bearing a direct causality&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn59&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[59]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  This would explain why high population growth is not associated with an  increase in emigration rates from the fast-growing Gulf states, and why,  conversely, low fertility rates in stagnant economies in eastern Europe  correspond with high emigration rates&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn60&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[60]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Demographic dynamics might bear better relevance when associated to migration  transition theory, which links it to economic development : counterintuitively,  high total fertility rates in countries of origin are associated with low  emigration. The negative association between the total fertility rates and  emigration means that a reduction in fertility is associated with an increase  in emigration. This result can be explained by the fact that countries with  relatively high fertility are generally those in the first phase of  demographic transition and with lower socio-economic development. A decline in  fertility is usually accompanied by increasing education levels and economic  development. This, in turn allows more people to have the economic means to  move to another country&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn61&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[61]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Therefore, debates on the eventual migration upcoming in Europe must take into  account the necessity to combine demographic dynamics with economic  development prospects. For instance, a debate over the consequences of the  upcoming Sub-Saharan Africa’s demographic burst opposed Stephen Smith&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn62&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[62]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;, an American academic and former journalist, to François Héran, a demographic  academic. Whilst both agree on the population growth dynamic, their divergence  lays on its associated economic development estimates, being a necessary  condition to impact migration&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn63&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[63]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;3.2. “Proximity”: historical, cultural and geographic factors&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;The  impact of proximity indicators between origin and destination – be it  historical (past colonial ties), cultural (linguistic similarities), and  geographic (physical distance) – on migration patterns reveals a strong  influence over it&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn64&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[64]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;. It does not represent a clear-cut factor as directly driving  migration decision, but it rather potentially influence  the destination decision. &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Countries with a shared colonial past may have similar institutions and  political ties that shape movement between the two. In general, language similarities  appear as quite important factors in shaping the destination choice of  asylum-seekers. Asylum flows may also be impacted by network influence,  emerging from linguistic proximity language between a set of source countries  and a destination country&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn65&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[65]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Furthermore, geographic proximity between origin and destination shapes the  asylum destination choices&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn66&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[66]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;However,
 considering past colonial relationships on migration flows, Mayda (2010) found
 that it does not carry a relevant significance; besides common language also
 appears to be insignificant. Wage and income differentials, demographic and
 geographic factors, and changes in migration policies in destination countries
 tend to minimize (or even offset) these factors when taken into account&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn67&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[67]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Regarding asylum-related flows, shared colonial history does not influence
 movement towards the same destination country neither&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn68&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[68]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;3.3. Environmental  factors&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;The man’s inability to  cope with natural forces as a factor determining human mobility has been  identified by Petersen&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn69&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[69]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;  in 1958 as “primitive migration” or movement triggered by ecological pushes.  However, climate change and environmental degradation might not directly  impact human mobility but rather be mediated by intervening factors. For  instance, Borderon et al. (2018) conducted a systematic review of 53 studies  on environmental change and migration focusing on Africa, and found out that  environmental change cannot be unequivocally presented as the sole driver of  migration&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn70&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[70]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Measuring the specific impact of environmental change on migration is  particularly challenging because such an impact is deeply intertwined with  social, political and economic processes. The extent of forced displacement  will also be largely dependent on the ability of affected individuals and communities  to cope with or to adapt to the consequences of environmental stress, as well  as the capacity of national governments to assist the affected communities&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn71&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[71]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  Furthermore, climatic shocks and their impact on migration cannot be analyzed  regardless to the political situation at stake. Climate change thus will not  generate asylum-seeking everywhere but likely in a country undergoing  political transformation where conflict represents a form of population  discontent towards inefficient response of the government to climate impacts&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn72&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[72]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  In another example, Afifi (2011) shows that environmental issues such as  drought, soil degradation and deforestation significantly influence migration  decisions in Niger as they aggravate economic insecurity&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn73&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[73]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Nevertheless,
 climate change and its environmental consequences&nbsp;might be a relevant
 lens to analyse the European Great Migration, throughout its impact on Syria.
 Although there is not much statistical evidence of the link between climate
 change and the conflict in Syria, the Syrian uprising provides a case study on
 how climate change and drought play a role in emphasizing
 the risk of conflict. During the period 2007–2010,
 Syria experienced the worst drought likely to be caused by anthropogenic
 climate change&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn74&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[74]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 The devastating consequences of drought due to poor governance and
 unsustainable agriculture and environmental policies consequently contributed
 to political unrest in Syria &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn75&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[75]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;figure class=&quot;wp-block-image&quot;&gt;&lt;img data-attachment-id=&quot;25338&quot; data-permalink=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/6-2/&quot; data-orig-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?fit=567%2C302&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-orig-size=&quot;567,302&quot; data-comments-opened=&quot;1&quot; data-image-meta=&quot;{&quot;aperture&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;credit&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;camera&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;created_timestamp&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;copyright&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;focal_length&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;iso&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;shutter_speed&quot;:&quot;0&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;orientation&quot;:&quot;0&quot;}&quot; data-image-title=&quot;6&quot; data-image-description=&quot;&quot; data-medium-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?fit=300%2C160&amp;ssl=1&quot; data-large-file=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?fit=567%2C302&amp;ssl=1&quot; src=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?w=1200&#038;ssl=1&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; class=&quot;wp-image-25338&quot; srcset=&quot;https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?w=567&amp;ssl=1 567w, https://i1.wp.com/www.eu-logos.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/6.png?resize=300%2C160&amp;ssl=1 300w&quot; sizes=&quot;(max-width: 567px) 100vw, 567px&quot; data-recalc-dims=&quot;1&quot; /&gt;&lt;figcaption&gt;Figure 6: Conceptual model of climate, conflict and migration, Abel et al. (2019)&lt;/figcaption&gt;&lt;/figure&gt;



&lt;h4&gt;3.4. Migration policy factors&lt;/h4&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Generally,  restrictive migration policies in destination countries may increase the cost  of international migration for prospective migrants, while more relaxed  migration regimes can intervene in further attracting migrants to specific  locations. Immigration quotas and migrant selectivity can represent measures  belonging to restrictive migration policies, and they appear as an important  intervening factor in conditioning net immigration rate into certain  countries, acting as “a filter between the desire to migrate” and actual  migration&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn76&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[76]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.  &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;However, the effectiveness of national and multilateral measures to regulate  forced migration is limited. Factors prompting people to leave their countries  are more relevant than policy variables&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn77&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[77]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,  and largely beyond destination countries’ control. The resilience shown by  individuals who undertook migration decisions, despite the prevalence of  abuses and the eventual barriers they met, is highlighted by their willingness  to migrate again if they had to, even knowing what they know now.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn78&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[78]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Furthermore,  increasingly restrictive migration regimes, combined with the presence of  entrepreneurial migrant smugglers, may produce greater numbers of migrants who  fall into irregularity: in the presence of limited legal migration opportunities,  migrants will increasingly resort to smugglers’ services&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn79&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[79]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,  as “the global motivation for migration far exceeds the limited possibilities  to cross borders”.&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn80&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[80]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;h3&gt;4. Conclusion&lt;/h3&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Considering
 migration has to come with acknowledging it as a fact generated by complex and
 intertwined factors. The deep roots pertaining to human mobility shall bring
 in everybody&rsquo;s mind that it does not depend on a merely opportunistic
 decision. A greater information dissemination is therefore necessary&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn81&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[81]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Migration
 is influenced by factors that drive it directly as well as indirectly. Direct
 drivers consist of socio-economic factors and political factors, with a
 particular emphasis found on the latter. Indirect factors operate through
 their action on the direct drivers but are not considered as solely causing
 its initiation. Nevertheless, through their impact on direct factors, they
 bear an important influential role and must not be neglected nor swiped away
 while considering migration movements and their roots.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;However,
 assessing migration drivers carries some limits. Uncertainties&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn82&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[82]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
 prevent us to draw clear lines over its future possibilities. For instance,
 climate change even though its indirect nature concerning migration, might
 appear as a game changer&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn83&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[83]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.
 Furthermore, it neglects a moral approach while estimating some factors’ effects.
 For instance, migration policies impact on migration does not state on whether
 restrictive policies might lead to human disaster, as drownings in
 Mediterranean sea&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/#_ftn84&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[84]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p style=&quot;text-align:justify&quot;&gt;Overall,
 this study aims at providing information and further reflection when questioning
 “Why do people migrate?”. It may, nonetheless, not be sufficient to lift
 doubts, fear and repulsion toward the migration phenomenon : a further
 question may therefore arise on “How do migration impact the host country ?”&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;Geoffrey Lanau&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;hr class=&quot;wp-block-separator&quot;/&gt;



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&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20170629STO78632&quot;&gt;https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20170629STO78632&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



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&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[41]&lt;/sup&gt; (Ibid.)&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[42]&lt;/sup&gt; Vervliet, M., et al. (2015).
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[43]&lt;/sup&gt;
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 migration and intentions to migrate’, JRC Science for policy report
 ‘international migration drivers’. pp.19-34&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[44]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Manchin, M., and Orazbayev, S. (2018), ‘Social networks and the intention to
 migrate’, World Development, Vol. 109, pp. 360-374&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[45]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Docquier, F., Peri, G., and Ruyssen, I. (2014). “The cross-country
 determinants of potential and actual migration”, International Migration
 Review, Vol. 48(s1), pp. 37-99&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[46]&lt;/sup&gt; Cummings, C., et
 al.&nbsp; (2015). “Why people move:
 Understanding the drivers and trends of migration to Europe.” Working
 Paper 430, Overseas Development Institute. &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[47]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Migali, S. (2018) “International Migration Drivers: an empirical
 investigation”, JRC Science for policy report ‘international migration
 drivers’, pp. 35-48 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[48]&lt;/sup&gt;
 de Haas, H. (2010), ‘Migration transitions : A theoretical and empirical
 inquiry into the developmental drivers of international migration’,Working
 Paper No 24, Oxford: IMI / DEMIG, International Migration Institute,
 University of Oxford.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[49]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Guéhenno, J.-M.,
 ‘‘Conflict Is Key to Understanding Migration’’, Carnegie Europe, 05/13/16, &lt;a href=&quot;https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/?fa=63578&quot;&gt;https://carnegieeurope.eu/strategiceurope/?fa=63578&lt;/a&gt;
 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[50]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed Migration Review 2018.
 Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Drivers revisited &#8211; Why do people
 migrate, pp. 78-83&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[51]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Hatton, T. (2016). “Refugees, Asylum Seekers, and Policy in Oecd Countries”,
 American Economic Review: Papers &amp; Proceedings 2016, Vol. 106(5), pp.
 441–445&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[52]&lt;/sup&gt;
 James, P., and Mayblin, L. (2016). “Factors influencing asylum destination
 choice: A review of the evidence”, Working paper: 04/16.1, The University of
 Sheffield&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[53]&lt;/sup&gt;&nbsp; Migali, S. (2018) “International Migration
 Drivers: an empirical investigation”, JRC Science for policy report
 ‘international migration drivers’, pp. 35-48&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[54]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Balcilar, M., and Nugent, J. (2018). “The migration of fear: An analysis of
 migration choices of Syrian refugees”, The Quarterly Review of Economics and
 Finance&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[55]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Crawley, H. (2010) “Chance or choice? Understanding why asylum seekers come to
 the UK”, Refugee Council&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[56]&lt;/sup&gt;
 European Asylum Support Office (2016), “The Push and Pull Factors of
 Asylum-Related Migration : A Literature Review”&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[57]&lt;/sup&gt; Cummings, C., et
 al.&nbsp; (2015). “Why people move:
 Understanding the drivers and trends of migration to Europe.” Working Paper
 430, Overseas Development Institute. &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[58]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Kritz, M. (2001). Population growth and international migration: is there a
 link?. Global Migrants,&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;Global Refugees: Problems and Solutions.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[59]&lt;/sup&gt;
 de Haas, H. (2010), ‘Migration transitions : A theoretical and empirical
 inquiry into the developmental drivers of international migration’,Working
 Paper No 24, Oxford: IMI / DEMIG, International Migration Institute,
 University of Oxford.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[60]&lt;/sup&gt; (Ibid.)&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[61]&lt;/sup&gt; Migali, S. (2018)
 “International Migration Drivers: an empirical investigation”, JRC Science for
 policy report ‘international migration drivers’, pp. 35-48&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[62]&lt;/sup&gt; Smith, S. (2017), La
 Ruée vers l’Europe : La jeune Afrique en route pour le Vieux Continent&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[63]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Using IMF and European Commission economic growth estimates, Francois Héran
 evaluates the immigration growth from Sub-Saharan Africa to Europe at 2,3% by
 2050, leading to a 4 to 5 % share of Sub-Saharan African in Europe, Stephen
 Smith states that 25% of the european population will have african roots by
 2050. Smith’s methods are contested &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.telos-eu.com/fr/societe/querelle-de-chiffres-sur-les-migrations.html&quot;&gt;https://www.telos-eu.com/fr/societe/querelle-de-chiffres-sur-les-migrations.html&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[64]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Lanati, M., and Venturini, A. (2018). “Cultural Change and the Migration
 Choice”, IZA DP No. 11415&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[65]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Barthel, F., and Neumayer, E. (2015). “Spatial dependence in asylum
 migration”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 41(7), pp.
 1131-1151.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[66]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Yoo, E., and Koo, J.-W. (2014). “Love thy neighbor: Explaining asylum seeking and hosting, 1982–&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;2008.”, International Journal of Comparative
 Sociology, Vol. 55(1), pp. 45-72.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[67]&lt;/sup&gt;Mayda,
 A.-M. (2010). “International migration: A panel data analysis of the
 determinants of&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;bilateral flows.”, Journal of Population Economics,
 Vol. 23(4), pp. 1249-1274.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[68]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Barthel, F., and Neumayer, E. (2015). “Spatial dependence in asylum
 migration”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, Vol. 41(7), pp.
 1131-1151.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[69]&lt;/sup&gt; Petersen,
 W. (1958). “A general typology of migration”, American Sociological Review,
 Vol. 23(3), pp. 256-266.&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[70]&lt;/sup&gt;Borderon,
 M. et al.(2018). “A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence on Migration
 Influenced by Environmental Change in Africa”, IIASA Working Paper No.
 WP-18-003, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA)&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[71]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Renaud, F. et al. (2011). “A decision framework for environmentally induced
 migration”, International Migration, Vol. 49(s1)&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[72]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Abel, G., et al. (2019). “Climate, conflict and forced migration”, Global
 Environmental Change, Vol. 234, pp. 239-249&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[73]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Afifi, T. (2011). “Economic or environmental migration? The push factors in
 Niger”, International&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;Migration, Vol. 49(s1)&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[74]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Kelley, C.-P., et al. (2015). “ Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and
 implications of the recent Syrian drought”, PNAS, Vol. 112, pp. 3241-3246&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[75]&lt;/sup&gt;
 &lt;em&gt;Ibid.&lt;/em&gt;
 &lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[76]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Hatton, T., and Williamson, J. (2005). “What fundamentals drive world
 migration?”, NBER Working Paper 9159, National Bureau of Economic Research&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[77]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Scipioni, M. (2018). “The Effects of Migration Policies on Migration Flows”,
 JRC Science for policy report ‘international migration drivers’. pp.49-60&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[78]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed Migration Review 2018.
 Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Drivers revisited &#8211; Why do people
 migrate, pp. 78-83&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[79]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed Migration Review 2018.
 Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Taking root &#8211; The complex economics of
 the global smuggling economy, pp. 104-109&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[80]&lt;/sup&gt;&nbsp; UNODC (2010) “A short introduction to
 migrant smuggling” in Horwood, C., Forin, R. and Frouws, B. (2018). “Mixed
 Migration Review 2018. Highlights.Interviews. Essays. Data.”, Taking root &#8211;
 The complex economics of the global smuggling economy, pp. 104-109&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[81]&lt;/sup&gt;‘‘Europe
 Migration Data Portal Will Challenge Fake News With Facts’’, IOM, 03/23/2019,
 &lt;a href=&quot;https://www.iom.int/news/europe-migration-data-portal-will-challenge-fake-news-facts&quot;&gt;https://www.iom.int/news/europe-migration-data-portal-will-challenge-fake-news-facts&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[82]&lt;/sup&gt;
 Bijak, J., ‘‘Migration forecasting : beyond limits of
 uncertainty’’, Global Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC) Data Briefing,
 11/2016,&nbsp; &lt;a href=&quot;https://gmdac.iom.int/gmdac-data-briefing-6&quot;&gt;https://gmdac.iom.int/gmdac-data-briefing-6&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[83]&lt;/sup&gt; Farinosi, F. et al.
 (2018). “Climate Change and Migration”, JRC Science for policy report
 ‘international migration drivers’. pp.61-70&lt;/p&gt;



&lt;p&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[84]&lt;/sup&gt;
 ‘‘Mediterranean
 migrant drownings should spur greater action by European countries, urge UN
 agencies’’, UN News, 01/22/2019, &lt;a href=&quot;https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/01/1030982&quot;&gt;https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/01/1030982&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;L’article &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/2019/05/31/migration-drivers-why-do-people-migrate/&quot;&gt;Migration drivers: Why do people migrate?&lt;/a&gt; est apparu en premier sur &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.eu-logos.org/&quot;&gt;Le portail de référence pour l&#039;espace de liberté,  sécurité et justice&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;
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